Document Type : Review Article

Authors

¹ Department of Regulatory Affairs, Hikma Pharmaceuticals USA Inc., 2 Esterbrook Lane, Cherry Hill, NJ 08003, USA

² Department of Regulatory Affairs, Ricon Pharma LLC, 100 Ford Rd, Suite #9, Denville, NJ 07834, USA

³ Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, SBV Chennai, Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth (Deemed to Be University), Pondicherry 607402, India

⁴ Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies (VISTAS), Pallavaram, Chennai- 600117, India

⁵ Department of Pharmacy Practice, Teerthanker Mahaveer College of Pharmacy, Teerthanker Mahaveer University, Moradabad U.P, 244001, India

⁶ Department of Pharmaceutics, Shri Venkateshwara College of Pharmacy, Ariyur, Puducherry, India

⁷ KL College of Pharmacy, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, 522502.India

⁸ Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Chennai, India

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

Subjects

• Analytical chemistry

Content

1. Introduction

2. Classification of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

2.1. Zero-dimensional materials: fullerenes, carbon quantum dots, and graphene quantum dots

2.2. One-dimensional materials: carbon nanotubes

2.3. Two-dimensional materials: graphene, graphene oxide, and other graphene derivatives

2.4. Hybrid and composite carbon-based nanomaterials

3. Fundamental Structure and Properties

3.1. Structural characteristics (sp²/sp³ hybridization, edge effects, and defects)

3.2. Electronic, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties of graphene, CNTs, and CQDs/GQDs

3.3. Quantum size effects and their role in quantum dots

3.4. Surface chemistry, functional groups, and doping-effects

4. Synthesis Methods

4.1. Graphene production: exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition, and reduction of graphene oxide

4.2. Carbon nanotube synthesis: arc-discharge, laser ablation, CVD, and growth mechanisms

4.3. Quantum dots (CQDs, GQDs): top-down vs. bottom-up approaches; size control; doping and surface modification

4.4. Composite synthesis and functionalisation

5. Characterization Techniques

5.1. Structural characterization: TEM, SEM, AFM, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy

5.2. Optical/electronic characterization: UV-Vis, photoluminescence (PL), and electrochemical methods

6. Challenges, Limitations, and Future Perspectives

6.1. Scalability, reproducibility, and cost-effectiveness of synthesis

6.1.1. Limitations in large-scale production technologies

6.1.2. Reproducibility and batch-to-batch consistency

6.1.3. Purification, separation, and defect control

6.2. Stability, toxicity, and environmental and health concerns

6.2.1. Chemical and structural stability issues

6.2.2. Interactions with biological systems and potential toxicity

6.2.3. Environmental impact and waste management

6.3. Integration into devices and real-world systems

6.3.1. Challenges in device fabrication and material compatibility

6.3.2. Interfacing with electronic and optical components

6.3.3. Reliability, consistency, and long-term performance

6.4. Emerging directions: quantum materials, hybrid systems, multi-functional platforms, and computational modelling

6.4.1. Quantum materials and next-generation electronics

6.4.2. Hybrid and composite systems

6.4.3. Multi-functional platforms

6.4.4. Computational modelling and AI-driven materials discovery

7. Conclusion

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